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LANGUAGE AND VARIATION. STUDYING VARIATION IN SOUND. The view from the sound system; Standards, superregional varieties, and vernaculars; Research trends in variety studies; Data sources and analysis; THE SOUND SYSTEM OF ENGLISH. Phonetics and phonology; Syllable structure; Vowel; The principle of lexical sets; Standard lexical sets for english vowels; Consonants; Connected speech. SOUND CHANGE IN ENGLISH. Analyzing change; Movements in sound systems; The course of language change. Motivation for change internal and external; Diffusion and patterning; Shared innovations or common developments; Scrutinizing further factors. THE SPREAD OF ENGLISH. THE COLONIAL PERIOD. The British empire; Settlement of colonies; The slave trade; Migration between colonies; Internal migration. TRANSPORTED DIALECT FEATURES. Early stages and their effects; Ship english; Language contact; Language shift; Loss of transported features. ENGLISH IN THE WORLD TODAY. The two hemispheres; Major anglophone areas; Dialects and standards. REGIONS AND COUNTRIES. ENGLAND. Standard Sothern’s British English; London and the home countries. THE CELTIC REGIONS. Scotland; English in Scotland; Scoots. EUROPE. Channel Islands; Gibraltar; Malta. NORTH AMERICA. United states; Superregional American English. THE CARIBBEAN. Caribbean creoles; Eastern Caribbean; Western Caribbean. AFRICA. West Africa; Cameroon; Nigeria. THE SOUTH ATLANTIC. St. Helena; Tristan da cunha; The Falkland Islands. ASIA. South Asia; India; Pakistan. AUSTRALIA. Australia; New Zeland. THE PACIFIC REGION. Background to English in the pacific; Melanesian pidgin English; Micronesia. PIDGINS AND CREOLES. English-lexifer pidgin and creoles; Creoles: theories of origin; The sound systems of pidgins and creoles. WORLD ENGLISHES AND SECOND-LANGUAGE VARIETIES. Foreign language pronunciations. OUTLOOK. TIMELINE FOR VARIETIES OF ENGLISH. THE HISTORY OF ENGLISH.